Teacher Education Policies in the European Union and the Quality of Lifelong Learning
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| TEACHER EDUCATION POLICIES
IN THE EUROPEAN UNION |
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by Friedrich
Buchberger |
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ESCAPISM? INSTEAD OF AN INTRODUCTION Starting this introductory lecture to the conference on "Teacher Education Policies in the European Union and Quality of Lifelong Learning" with a few remarks on the "National Commission on Teaching and America´s Future" and teacher education policies in the USA may surprise. This procedure may be interpreted as a certain form of escapism, especially when considering the many problems with which teacher education policies in the Member States of the European Union are confronted. However, the work of this American National Commission may be seen
Established initially by a consortium with the high prestigious Rockefeller Foundation and the Carnegie Foundation as main partners in 1994 this National Commission has in the meanwhile become an influential group and a strong movement consisting of
In 1996 this National Commission has submitted the report "What Matters Most: Teaching for America´s Future". It has analysed the situation of teacher education in the fifty Federal States of the United States and provided a challenging agenda for its substantial reform. In 1997 this Commission has then submitted the report "Doing What Matters Most: Investing in Quality Teaching" which contains a coherent agenda for policies for systemic teacher education reform. Having analysed high-quality programmes of teacher education, different teacher education policies of the Federal States, and common sense statements on teacher education frequently used even in teacher education policy discourses, such as "anyone can teach having some knowledge of certain academic disciplines", or "teacher preparation is not much use", these reports have presented clear and empirically strongly supported evidence,
The reports concluded that the single most important strategy for achieving America´s ambitious educational goals is a blueprint for recruiting, preparing and supporting excellent teachers for all schools (cf. L. DARLING-HAMMOND 1999a). Indeed, correlating different forms of educational investment with increases in student achievement indicates
The proposals submitted are systemic in scope:
The past few years these reports, their recommendations for teacher education policies, and the concrete reform efforts of the National Commission both at the level of teacher education policy and in concrete reform projects at institutions of teacher education and at school level have had sometimes substantial impact. In an ever increasing number of Federal States of the United States teacher education policies have been changed and substantial reforms of teacher education programmes have been made, which have contributed to much better outcomes both in teacher education and at school level. At the same time it can not be neglected that some Federal States of the USA have continued with rather traditional and problematic teacher education policies. These Federal States have preserved or reintroduced so-called alternative routes into teaching, teacher education programmes of a short duration ("emergency routes"), or school-centred initial teacher training although the negative outcomes of these programs are obvious (cf. L. DARLING-HAMMOND 1999b). In addition, the manifesto of the Thomas Fordham Foundation on "The Teachers We Need and How to Get More of Them" (1999) can be seen as a good example of political rhetoric on teacher education reform and policies – and how to prevent reform perceived to be indispensable through so-called common sense and a certain misuse of scientific argument. Without stating that the work of the American National Commission, which has become a big movement, could be an example for teacher education reform and policies simply to be copied in the Member States in the European Union, one can propose with good argument that it may have enormous potential to help to enrich the problem-space in European discussions and to shed light on some neglected or hidden aspects of European discourses on teacher education reform and policies. B) EXCUSES? SEVEN PRELIMINARY REMARKS As Rapporteur General to this conference I have been asked by the conference organisers to submit at its beginning
Having accepted this I find myself very close to one of the cardinal sins of teacher education: being too ambitious, wanting too much in a too short period of time, and therefore remaining at a surface level only. However, speaking about the topics I am very well aware, but I will not consider in this lecture would take the entire sixty minutes for which it has been scheduled. Because of this fact I think that I will have to give seven short preliminary remarks on the approach I will adopt in this presentation: 1. The first preliminary remark relates to the data-base for critical analysis and identification.
Although these sources focus on a macro-level of teacher education policies, and therefore exclude the level of micro-politics, which about some observers are convinced that these are even more relevant than the macro-level policies, they provide extremely rich material and reflect sometimes rather controversial positions on teacher education policies – both within the different Member States of the European Union and between them. This material clearly indicates that general analyses and comparisons of the different teacher education policies adopted in the Member States of the European Union would only be possible, if done on a rather abstract level, which subsequently will lead to reduced content validity (cf. G. NEAVE 1992). 2. Reducing and structuring the amount of information available for analysis and identification one could adopt an approach, which focuses on a selected number of particular teacher education policies and countries adopting these as guiding principles. One could, for example, analyse teacher education policies focussing on a concept of a "new and open professionalism" as adopted in many ways in Finland or Portugal, and compare these with policies adopted in rather traditional models, such as most German models of teacher education seem to be, and teacher education policies focussing on a minimum competency model with a strong focus on the continuous professional development of teachers as seems to be adopted in England and Wales. I will not adopt this approach as it might easily lead to very particular and context-bound discussions on teacher education policies of these countries mentioned excluding relevant issues of other contexts. Another reason why I will not adopt this approach is, that it is based on the assumption of homogeneity within particular contexts which in no case can be verified. In addition this approach might easily lead to reductive sloganism. 3. On a rather general level a number of social, economic, political and cultural changes in the Member States of the European Union have become visible the past decade affecting concrete teacher education policies. The White Book "Teaching and Learning: Towards the Learning Society" of the European Commission (1995) has intended to describe some of the implications of these changes – the impact of internationalisation, the impact of the information society, and the impact of the scientific and technical world. It has then made some recommendations for actions in the education sector. "The Green Paper on Teacher Education" has submitted a more detailed analysis, and added i.a. the shift of values, changing perceptions on the role of the state in the education sector, the increase in economic thinking and its repercussions on the education sector, or structural changes in the higher education sector and their impact on teacher education and its policies. All these factors outlined may be seen in close relationship to a number of trends of convergence in the education sector in the European Union. However, actions taken in the different countries differ sometimes very much depending on existing complex and sometimes discrepant social, economic, cultural and political systems in these (cf. A. GREEN et al. 1999). Considering this fact implies that in-depth analyses in particular countries would be required. An identification of general issues for future teacher education policies in Europe would therefore remain problematic and might lead all to easy to misleading results. 4. Teacher education and policies aiming at influencing it have to be conceptualised as complex – not only complicated – social systems following principles of self-referentiality and autopoiesis. This implies that assumptions of causality and linearity can not apply to these. This fact has repercussions both on the analysis of teacher education policies and the identification of main issues to be addressed. Again, this fact may be seen as a (principal) obstacle to problem analysis in general and simple answers in particular. 5. Another implication of the fact outlined above is, that problem-definitions as well as problem-solutions may not be simply transferred from one context to another. Existing models of teacher education and teacher education policies always reflect activities in particular social and cultural contexts comprised of different actors holding different interest and power – T. POPKEWITTZ (1993) has spoken of a "social arena of teacher education". Because of this fact it will only be possible to provide some input for defining problem-spaces and problem-solving processes that will have to take place in particular contexts – which I think have not necessarily to be national ones, but may be both local and pan-European ones. 6. A sixth preliminary remark will deal with the culture of the dialogue on teacher education. A (non-) culture of shaming and blaming which has characterised discussions on teacher education and teacher education policies in some Member States of the European Union the past decade seems to me absolutely superfluous. Based on the rich knowledge available on successful teacher education and teacher education policies, and accepting different normative positions we might be able to contribute in an open and respectful dialogue to improvements of teacher education policies. 7. I will now try to present a short critical analysis of some selected aspects of teacher education policies and combine this analysis with an identification of some main issues to be addressed by these policies the near future. Both the analysis and the identification are based on conceptual, comparative, and empirical analyses of teacher education and teacher education policies mainly in European countries. In the first four paragraphs of this analysis I will focus some fundamental aspects of teacher education policies. The subsequent paragraphs 5 - 12 will then be structured around the different components of the process of the continuous professional development of teachers. Some additional issues will be addressed in the three final paragraphs 13 - 15. As the Italian philosopher U. ECO has once said: For all complex problems there exists one simple answer. But, you can be sure, that it will be false. Following this advice, I will not present simple answers for complex problems, but will raise more questions and reflections on possible answers. C) HOW CONSTRUCTIVE SHOULD A CRITICAL ANALYSIS BE? 1. Teacher education - an open and dynamic system? In principle there is general agreement that teacher education has to be conceived as an open and dynamic system, part of a continuous process of professional development. As an open and dynamic system teacher education is embedded
Developing best solutions possible in times of rapid change and uncertainties calls for permanent co-operation and collaborative problem-solving of all actors involved. Against this background it seems to be necessary, if not existing already, to promote and to develop cultures for permanent dialogue and collaborative problem-solving. The entire system of teacher education including those with responsibility for teacher education policies has to be given opportunity to develop itself into learning communities at a local, "national", and pan-European level. Developing learning communities would imply
A vision for teacher education and teacher education policies or standard practice in other knowledge-producing organisations? 2. Teacher education as a continuous process and the necessity of systemic reform Teacher education has to support the professional development of teachers during all phases of their professional career. This includes competencies and attitudes which allow all teachers to fulfil the expectations of society at whatever stage they are in their career. The process of continuous professional development
Despite general agreement on the need for such a dynamic conception of teacher education in principle, most European systems and models of teacher education have been organised along traditional lines following static conceptions. Static conceptions of teacher education
One can propose that static conceptions of teacher education with their separations in different and only loosely coupled sub-systems are inappropriate and an enormous waste of both human and material resources. Effects of synergy possible and necessary to improve both teacher education and schools cannot be made. While reforms of teacher education and teacher education policies in the USA following the recommendations of the National Commission for Teaching and America´s Future focus on a systemic approach integrating the components mentioned, only a few European countries have begun recently to develop teacher education into a dynamic system and to focus on systemic approaches integrating all forms of teacher education, school development and improvement, and educational research and development. Finding appropriate solutions to this problem may be perceived as a key element of most, not to say all, forms of prospective teacher education the near future. However, such changes will imply a breaking of some long-standing traditions and concepts. 3. An institutional place for teacher education Separations at different levels seem to be one of the key problems of teacher education in most European countries. While initial teacher education is split up into, in many cases, unrelated departments (e.g. professional studies, different subject departments, teaching/school practice), it is then itself again separated from induction and the other parts of continuous professional development. In addition, the former are then in most cases strictly separated from school development and staff development, or educational research and development. Especially initial teacher education has to miss its place, and is frequently nothing more than an appendix to various "something else". As a consequence professional cultures of teacher education could not be developed in many Member States of the European Union. This situation makes it imperative to establish structures for coherent teacher education, and to develop these places into centres for learning communities. A careful analysis of the organisation of the initial as well as continuous professional education and training of doctors of medicine could bring about a number of insights for the teaching profession. Integrative faculties of (teacher) education might have enormous potential. In every case, it seems to be imperative to find adequate institutional solutions for all forms of teacher education integrating school development and educational research and development. 4. The "innovation trap" and the limits of "more of the same" Without making substantial re-orientations of traditional rationales, most European Union Member States have made reforms of their teacher education systems following a "more of the same – rationale" (cf. OECD 1996). Although some European countries have made substantial progress in reforming teacher education following the leitmotif of a "new professionalism" (cf. GREEN PAPER 2000), it has remained more common to infuse some elements of a professionalised teacher education only into the programmes without changing the nucleus of these programmes. Admission criteria to teacher education have been raised, teacher education has been transferred into the higher education sector and some professional or academic components have been infused into the curricula of teacher education. OECD has heavily criticised this approach and stressed its inadequacy to meet the challenge of change in rapidly changing knowledge-driven societies. More substantial reform has been perceived to be indispensable. In addition a number of teacher education policies might have tapped into an "innovation trap" the past decades. This phenomenon may be described as follows: With some delay an education problem has been detected. After its perception and recognition solutions have been developed. During that time the initial problem has made its development - and has changed in many cases. When solutions have been made ready, they have been able to tackle a problem that either did not exist any more or has changed. Why did I present this example? Nobody having tapped once into "innovation traps" will be blamed. The important question seems to be, how far in advance and with which perspectives teacher education policies have to be developed. While re-acting to problems with traditional measures may be perceived as a rather problematic procedure, pro-activity seems to be imperative. Would not the Finnish Delphi-study on future teacher education policies (cf. J. JUSSILA, S. SAARI 2000) be an example of adequate pro-active forward planning? The next nine points of my analysis will be structured following the different components of the process of professional development of teachers. 5. Recruiting competent and committed teachers While most Member States of the European Union frequently have expressed that recruiting high-quality candidates for teacher education would be a priority of teacher education policies, this aim could not be realised in most of them (cf. as an exception Finnish primary teacher education). In many cases teaching seems to be the second choice of the second best only. Especially in times of booming economies severe shortages of teachers have to be observed. Shortages exist especially in math education, natural sciences, information and communication technology, foreign language learning, and in the sector of vocational and technical education. At the same time other Member States are confronted with a big surplus of teacher candidates and educated teachers. Special efforts have been made in a number of countries to tackle the problem by providing special incentives to prospective teachers, by opening up alternative routes into the teaching profession, or to retain qualified teachers in school by providing special incentives or different career structures for teachers (e.g. England and Wales). However, this complex problem needs more careful consideration. Statistics of the European Commission (1996) indicate that the relative income of teachers has decreased compared to the income of other professions in most Member States of the European Union. Compared to the income and status of other academic professions teachers rank lowest. In addition, the conditions of service and the work-place may not be perceived as adequate in a number of Member States. Attracting and recruiting "the best" for the teaching profession will call for comprehensive measures of teacher education policies, if the aim declared should be more than lip-service. The proposals made by the National Commission for Teaching and America´s Future are worth to be considered: increase the duration of initial teacher education – make initial teacher education more demanding and challenging – introduce professional standards for a voluntary advanced certification of teachers and relate these to career structures within the teaching profession. 6. Unclear aims – unclear outcomes? In most Member States of the European Union the definition of the aims for (initial) teacher education has been seen as a responsibility of the state until recently. Frequently, these definitions have been rather general, and institutions of teacher education had to develop curricula of their own within this framework. Again, at this level these descriptions have remained rather vague in many cases. As J. ÖLKERS (1997) has stated these aims at an ionstitutional level have described more visions and idealisations than realistic goals, and because of this, it never has been possible to evaluate whether aims declared have been met adequately. The explanation frequently used for this fact that teacher education would be a contested area cannot really satisfy. In attempts to tackle this problem a number of European countries has begun to define – and to control – rather narrowly conceived competencies for teacher education. Research and evaluations in a cross-European perspective might be able to highlight the benefits and problems of such an approach. Doubts have been expressed whether these models might be adequate to help prospective teachers to develop key-qualifications such as collaborative problem-solving capacity or the capacity for lifelong learning. Some observers have expressed that these models would follow outdated Fordist-modes of production not any more adopted in other sectors or industry. In most other countries a combination of both participatory and managerial approaches has been adopted. Institutions and programmes of teacher education have to develop for themselves concrete curricula which are then subject to accreditation by state agencies and both internal and external evaluation. This procedure allows institutions of teacher education to develop profiles of their own. A number of advantages may be seen in relation to this approach. Respecting the professional competence of those involved in teacher education, it may be seen as a dynamic model fostering adaptations to ever changing conditions and situations of teacher education and the teaching profession. 7. Curricula of initial teacher education Like curricula at school level most curricula of teacher education have to be conceived as "collection code curricula", as conglomerates consisting of very loosely coupled components only. They seem to be rooted in some long-standing traditions, opinions, and beliefs. In addition they may be seen as results of power games in the social arena of teacher education. Like many curricula at school level most curricula of teacher education have not become subject to substantial reform perceived to be necessary. This fundamental problem has at least three components which apply to all the different forms of teacher education – be it professionalised or competency based models:
An orientation of teacher education on certain academic disciplines seems to be rather problematic and in strong need for substantial revision. In addition some problems seem to exist with so-called professional studies (e.g. educational sciences, Didaktik/didactics). A science for/of the teaching profession dealing with teaching-studying-learning processes has not fully been developed, yet. Enormous efforts seem to be necessary to develop it in order to improve the quality of teacher education and learning at school level. It is remarkable, that a coherent research component has to be missed in many models of teacher education. Problems with the teaching practice component of teacher education programmes will be discussed in the next paragraph. In addition most models of teacher education seem to have problems with the integration of their different components. Professional studies, Didaktik studies, academic studies in different disciplines, and teaching practice – and the frequently missing element research - are frequently not integrated. Student teachers are supposed to achieve what teacher education is not always able to do with its curricula. It is worth mentioning that a number of teacher education institutions all over Europe could develop some high-quality solutions. These solutions seem to correlate very much with highly developed university-based cultures of teacher education. In addition, support provided by curriculum development projects under the European Commission action scheme SOCRATES has helped a lot in their development. While more autonomy of schools almost all over Europe in curricular issues might help in developing problem-awareness, its potential seems to be limited. (Teacher) Education policies will have to take curricular problems both at school level and in teacher education more seriously. 8. Teaching practice – more or better, or more and better? Almost all reports on successful teacher education stress the importance of a coherent teaching practice component. At the same time success seems to depend very much on its integration with the professional studies, and the support provided for clinical supervision by specially educated staff of institutions of teacher education. Against this evidence it seems to be problematic to extend the amount of time to be spent for teaching practice without considering the other important factors for success mentioned. The HOLMES COMMISSION (1990) has begun at leading universities dealing with teacher education in the USA to establish so-called Professional Development Schools. These schools combine the teaching practice component of student teachers with innovative research and development work done by teachers, students, and researchers in collaborative problem-solving processes. This gives student teachers ample opportunity to get familiar with most modern practice and continuous education research and development. Especially teacher research or action research projects are perceived to be of utmost importance. At the same time Professional Development Schools can be seen as meeting places for practising teachers, at which they find ample opportunity to get to know and to learn best practice of teaching. Some European models of teacher education have developed comparable concepts. Recent English developments with the establishment of networks of schools dealing with initial teacher education may be interpreted in line with what has been said. In every case closer co-operation between teacher education institutions and schools will have to be established. The role of co-operating teachers may be seen as one of highest relevance, and special training will have to be provided for this group. In addition, it might help to increase existing quality of initial teacher education, if all institutions of teacher education would be given opportunity to establish both Professional Development Schools and networks of co-operating schools. 9. Accreditation of teacher education programmes The accreditation of initial teacher education programmes, the initial certification of teachers and an advanced certification of teachers are three key elements of the proposals submitted by the National Commission on Teaching and America´s Future. In most Member States of the European Union issues of accreditation and certification have found increasing attention and a number of different models has been developed. Independently of their designation, agency responsible and methodology used, most systems of teacher education make now use of an external system of approval/accreditation of the programmes of teacher education and/or an external system of certification of the professional qualifications of (prospective) teachers (cf. GREEN PAPER 2000). These systems aim at giving public assurance of the adequacy of programmes of initial teacher education and their suitability to prepare for the professional tasks and role of the teaching profession. Additionally, these systems may fulfil two other roles. They may help to facilitate the professional mobility of teachers within the European Union, and may also act as main encouraging factor for the improvement of teacher education programmes that may contribute to build a new teacher professionality. In order to reach these aims, systems of accreditation and/or certification which follow the subsequent criteria seem to have high potential:
10. Induction into professional cultures of school A number of observers of teacher education policies have stated, that the induction of newly qualified teachers into the professional cultures of schools is one of the "missing links" or the "great omission" of teacher education. Research clearly indicates that a large number of qualifications acquired in initial teacher education are "washed out" in the first years of service of newly qualified teachers. This fact has to be seen as an enormous waste of resources. Recognising this fact a number of European countries has begun to introduce programmes for the induction. England and Wales have introduced so-called "Career Entry Profiles" and some form of support by mentors at school level. In principle, the second state-run second phase of teacher education in Germany or the Austrian "Unterrichtspraktikum" may be seen as examples of an induction. While it seems to be imperative that provision for an induction into professional cultures will be provided (e.g. reduced teaching loads, provision of mentors), schools themselves will have to develop professional cultures of induction and learning. It seems to be necessary to offer education and training for staff who will take main responsibility for the induction of newly qualified teachers. 11. Continuous professional development – another missing link? Presenting arguments on the necessity of lifelong learning in general and teachers in particular would mean carrying owls to Athens. However, a survey on the situation of the in-service education of teachers in most European countries might bring about a rather problematic situation. A certain mechanism of problem-suppression or avoidance behaviour seem to characterise the situation very well. Having said this I do not neglect the many efforts taken in different European countries to establish sometimes comprehensive systems of in-service education. Without being complete problems to be addressed by future teacher education policies may be defined as follows:
12. The potential of advanced certification Against a rather discrepant background a number of arguments have been put forward to elaborate on forms of an advanced certification for teachers:
While different university-based teacher education programmes have for long provided opportunities for teachers to upgrade their qualifications, the proposals of the National Commission for Teaching and America´s Future as well as a recent proposal contain an additional and highly relevant issue. To keep at least a certain of high quality teachers in classrooms they may apply voluntarily for advanced certification. This certification is bound to the submission of a professional portfolio by the teachers and the fulfilment of different standards, defined and evaluated by the teaching profession (cf. National Board for Professional Teaching Standards). It is worth mentioning that since 1997 around 200 000 teachers in America have passed the evaluations and received advanced certification. Many Federal States of the USA provide support for teachers to prepare themselves for this type of certification, and reward success with material resources. May advanced certification of teachers be a measure appropriate to improve the quality of teacher education and teaching in European countries? 13. "Those who can ......" – Actors in teacher education and their qualifications While it is commonly accepted that teachers and their qualifications are a crucial factor for the achievements of students, it may astonish that a coherent education and training for staff working in teacher education has to be missed in most European countries. This fact seems to apply to co-operating teachers, teachers in training schools, teacher educators in the professional study component, the educational sciences or the different academic subjects. In addition a few trainers only in the continuous professional development sector have received adequate education how to work and learn with adults or on systemic and active learning. These facts may be brought into close relationships with certain problems. In every case it implies a certain waste of resources. A profile for qualifications necessary to work in teacher education has to be missed in most countries. We think that establishing structures for the qualification of prospective teacher educators and the continuous professional development of staff working in institutions of teacher education might have highest relevance, and should be addressed as another key issue for future teacher education policies. 14. Evaluation In many European countries (initial) teacher education has become the most frequently evaluated – and controlled – part of higher education studies. Comparing for example the many evaluations of Finnish teacher education with their focus on internal evaluation combined with external evaluation, improvement, and communicative evaluation (cf. J. JUSSILA, S. SAARI 2000) with approaches adopted in England and Wales might bring about a large number of insights. However, coherent evaluations on the effects and efficiency of different measures adopted in the different models of teacher education have to be missed. Being very well aware of the many problems connected to the evaluation of the effects and efficiency of teacher education, especially when done in a comparative perspective, I think that we should increase our knowledge to make then decisions on the further development of teacher education dependent on the different cultural, social, economic, and political contexts. 15. A European dimension in teacher education – a vision? Dealing with the realisation of a European dimension in the education sector in general and teacher education in particular might result on side in a success story, on another in rather disappointing outcomes:
Both curricula at school level and in teacher education do consider a European dimension to a limited extent only. European studies or in-service based masters programmes for teachers dealing with a European dimension are quite exceptional. Double certificates for teachers or a European certificate for teaching have remained more programmes than become reality. Teacher mobility between Member States has not developed as some have optimistically expected at the beginning of the nineties (cf. G. NEAVE 1992). Some progress may be observed in interpreting and applying the recommendations for the recognition of higher education diploma as regards the teaching profession. However, I think that this relatively new phenomenon will need some time to develop, and that more coherent efforts of teacher education policies both at the level of Member States and the European Commission will be necessary. Two final remarks Let me finish this introductory lecture with two statements. The first has been written by a German student on his desk in his classroom: I do not know, whether it will become better, when things are changing. But I know very well, if it should become better, things will have to be changed. The second statement has been made by the Austrian poet E. FRIED, and I have adapted to teacher education and teacher education policies: Those, who want that teacher education remains as it is, do not want that ir remains. References F. Buchberger, B. Campos, D. Kallos, J. Stephenson (2000): High quality teacher education for high quality education and training. Green paper on teacher education. Umea. L. Darling-Hammond (1999): Educating teachers for the next century: rethinking practice and policy. In. G. Griffin (Ed.): The education of teachers. Chicago. L. Darling-Hammond (1999b): Teacher quality and student achievement. A review of state policy evidence. http://www.te.columbia.edu/~teachcomm/ A. Green, A. Wolf, T. Leney (1999): Convergence and divergence in European education and training systems. London. R. Greenwald, L. hedges, R. Laine (1996): The effects of school resources on student achievement. In: Review of Educational Research 66 (361-396). Holmes Commission (1990): Tomorrows´ schools. Lansing. J. Jussila, S. Saari (Eds.) (2000): Teacher education as a future-moulding factor. http://www.minedu.fi/minedu/education/finheec/finheec.html National Commission on Teaching and America´s Future (1996): What matters most. http://www.te.columbia.edu/~teachcomm/ National Commission on Teaching and America´s Future (1997): Doing what matters most: investing in quality teaching. http://www.te.columbia.edu/~teachcomm/ G. Neave (1992): The teaching nation. Oxford. OECD: Lifelong learning for all. Paris. J. Ölkers (1996): Effizienz und Evaluation in der Lehrerbildung. In. Beiträge zur Lehrerbildung 15 (15-25). |
